Wolf predation on wild ungulates: How slope and habitat cover influence the localization of kill sites

Based on data collected along the Ligurian Apennines and Alps (N-W Italy), we analysed the main environmental and human-related factors influencing the distribution of kill sites of the wolf Canis lupus. We mapped and digitized 62 kill sites collected during 2007-2016. Around each kill site, we defined a buffer corresponding to the potential hunting area of wolves. We compared kill site plots and an equal number of random plots. We formulated a model of kill site distribution following an approach presence versus availability by binary logistic regression analysis; we tested the hypothesis that wolf choice of kill sites is influenced by the physiography and the land use of the area. Among the preyed wild ungulates, we identified 23 roe deer Capreolus capreolus, 18 fallow deer Dama dama, 16 wild boars Sus scrofa, and 5 chamois Rupicapra rupicapra. Binary logistic regression analysis showed a negative effect of the road density, the urban areas, the mixed forests, and a positive effect of steep slopes and open habitats. Prey are more vulnerable to predators under certain conditions and predators are capable of selecting for these conditions. Wolves achieved this by selecting particular habitats in which to kill their prey: they preferred steep, open habitats far from human presence, where wild ungulates are more easily detectable and chasable.