Hull biofouling: An ecological and ecotoxicological approach for common suitable management and policy strategies

Biofouling control is a multi-sector challenge affecting multiple industries of the blue economy. Prevention measures are essential to ensure the proper functioning of marine structures affected by this problem and to minimise costs and risks associated with its development. Antifouling coatings are among the main prevention measures and there is currently a wide variety of products, from traditional biocide-based ones to nobel sustainable alternatives. Understanding the environmental impacts derived from the application of antifouling coatings in the marine environment is essential to develop a legislative and management framework for biofouling control. This thesis evaluates the impact of two commercial antifouling coatings for recreational boats that fall within the above-mentioned typologies, from a multidisciplinary and holistic approach, and frames the experimental results within the current regulatory scenario, identifying challenges and shortcomings to propose tangible tools for final users.