“The feeling that’s always there”: Prevalence and correlates of parental guilt in Italy

Objective: This article examines the prevalence and correlates of parental guilt and shame in Italy, including anticipated parental guilt among childless individuals. Background: Parental guilt and shame arise when parents perceive a mismatch between internalized norms of good parenting and their actual parenting practices. While these emotions have been documented in other societies, empirical evidence in Italy remains limited, largely qualitative, and focused on mothers. This study addresses this gap by providing national-level evidence on both mothers and fathers and by extending the analysis to anticipated parental guilt. Method: The study draws on an original online survey of 6,000 adults of childbearing age living in Italy, with a sampling design that deliberately oversampled mothers (3,500 mothers, 1,000 childless women, 1,000 fathers, and 500 childless men), with a final analytical sample of 5,587. The survey includes items measuring different forms of parental guilt and shame, as well as anticipated guilt. Exploratory Factor Analysis was used to construct five guilt scales, which were subsequently analyzed using OLS regression models. Results: Parental guilt and shame are similarly prevalent among Italian mothers and fathers, with mothers displaying a modestly higher level of these emotions. No gender differences emerge in anticipated parental guilt. However, the correlates of guilt vary by gender, with economic well-being and gender-role attitudes emerging as the strongest and most consistent correlates across nearly all forms of guilt. Conclusion: Parental guilt emerges as a salient emotional dimension in Italy not only among mothers and fathers but also among childless individuals, suggesting that moral expectations surrounding parenthood are widely shared in a low-fertility context.