Trajectories of theory of mind development during middle childhood: A four-wave longitudinal study

This longitudinal study investigates theory of mind (ToM) development in middle childhood and its demographic and linguistic predictors. In this study, 194 Italian primary school children (Mage = 9.4 years; 47% girls; 28% with one or both Italian parents) were assessed four times over 2 years using a multi-modal ToM battery. Results confirmed longitudinal measurement invariance of the ToM battery. Latent growth modeling showed ToM growth from Time 1 to Time 3, followed by a plateau. Analyses revealed significant inter-individual variability at Time 1 but no variance in the rate of development. Higher verbal ability and having siblings predicted higher initial ToM, while non-native speakers began lower but showed greater gains. Findings extend existing accounts on ToM development.Children's ability to understand what others think and feel [theory of mind (ToM)] continues to develop beyond early childhood. This study followed 194 children in Italy from ages 9 to 11 to examine social understanding development. Children's ToM improved during this period, but development followed a non-linear trajectory. Although all children made progress, they tended to maintain their relative positions compared to their peers. Those with stronger verbal skills and with siblings started out with higher levels of ToM, whereas non-native speakers began at lower levels but showed greater improvement over time. Overall, the findings suggest that early differences in ToM tend to persist, highlighting the importance of early, targeted support for children's socio-cognitive development.