Uncovering vulnerability to fraud and scams among adult victims in online and offline contexts: A systematic review

Fraud and scams are significant global challenges increasingly enabled by new technologies. Despite extensive research on fraud, no specific risk profiles have been established, and the influence of age and fraud type on vulnerability remains unclear. The objective of this systematic review is to explore the sociodemographic, non-cognitive, and cognitive factors associated with fraud victimization, with a specific focus on how these factors vary depending on the type of fraud and age group. We followed the PRISMA guidelines and conducted a comprehensive search across three scientific databases: PubMed, PsycINFO, and Scopus. The findings indicate a fragmented landscape, suggesting that fraud victims cannot be treated as a homogeneous group. Fraud victimization appears to result from the interplay of multiple dimensions, including the type of scam, individual characteristics, and contextual conditions. Most fraud cases were shown to occur online. Additionally, people of all ages were found to be vulnerable to fraud, with different types of fraud showing different prevalence across age groups. The most consistently supported risk factors across studies include low conscientiousness, high impulsivity, reduced cognitive functioning, and social isolation. Despite the predominant focus on older adults, this review underscores the need for standardized research methodologies and a more inclusive focus across age groups to better understand fraud vulnerability. Moreover, our findings support that as digital technologies increasingly mediate everyday interactions across age groups and transactions, it becomes essential to challenge persistent myths and develop adaptive, evidence-based strategies that can also keep pace with the evolving nature of fraud in online environments.